Minerals

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دکتر قدرت اله محمدي:آخرين مدرك تحصيلي: دكتريمحور تخصصي: ژئوشیمی و کانی شناسی نوری و مصالح و زمین شناسی ساختمانی rezamworld@yahoo.com  + نوشته شده در شنبه ۲۷ آبان ۱۳۹۱ ساعت 9:30 توسط j | تاریخچه زمین شناسی اقتصادی در ایران وجاریخچه استفاده از فلزات در ایران : در مورد تاریخ استفاده از مس نظرات ضد و نقیضی دیده می شود. گروهی استفاده از آن را در حدود 20 هزار سال پیش از میلاد، و عده ای تاریخ استفاده آن را به حدود 12 هزار سال پیش از میلاد و به کشور مصر نسبت می دهند. برخی ساکنان اولیه ایران را نخستین ذوب کنندگان و استفاده کنندگان از فلز مس تصور می کنند و تاریخ آن را به حدود 9 هزار سال پیش از میلاد می دانند. با این حال، به نظر بسیاری از باستان شناسان استخراج و ذوب مس توسط ساکنان اولیه ایران و در محلی به نام تل ابلیس صورت گرفته است. براساس شواهد باستان شناسی و معدن کاری قدیمی، مرکز، شرق و شمال ایران دارای کهن ترین پیشینه فلزگری می باشند. اواخر هزاره هفتم در ایران را مرحله گذر از عصر نوسنگی به عصر فلزات می دانند، در حالی که عصر نوسنگی در اروپا تا هزاره چهارم ادامه داشته است. در سال 1966 در فرانسه مجسمه گوسفندی از فیروزه ساخته شده بود و در موزه ای به عنوان هنر 7000 ساله ایران، به تماشای همگان گذاشته شد و این موضوع نشان از آن دارد که تاریخ استخراج و به کارگیری فیروزه در ایران، به بیش از 7000 سال پیش می رسد. همچنین کوره های قدیمی ذوب فلزات و سرباره های باقیمانده آنان، در دامنه رشته کوه های زاگرس و البرز تا کویر یزد، کرمان ، قم ، کاشان ، خراسان و همچنین در دامنه رشته کوههای بلوچستان مانند سرباره های معدنی مس چهل کوره و معادن متروکه سرب و روی بین ناحیه خارستان و بید ستر تفتان حاکی از مهارت نیاکان ما در امر استحصال فلزات از مواد معدنی دارد.وجود کلمه aios به معنی فلزات در زبان هند و اروپایی، نشان دهنده این است که تمدن هند و اروپایی پیش از مهاجرت، به عصر فلزات رسیده اند. این کلمه در لاتین aes به معنی مفرغ و مس و در سانسکریت به ayas یعنی آهن تبدیل شده است. واژه آهن در زبان پارسی مشتق از آسن asen (در زبان کردی) می باشد که واژه های آیزن eisen (آلمانی) و آیرون iron (انگلیسی) از آن مشتق شده است. ‌قانون معادن  23/3/1377 ‌قانون معادن‌فصل اول - تعاريف و كليات‌ماده 1 - تعريف واژه‌هاي بكار رفته در اين قانون به شرح زير است:‌الف - ماده معدني (‌كاني): هر ماده يا تركيب طبيعي كه بصورت جامد يا گاز يا مايع و يا محلول در آب در اثر تحولات زمين‌شناسي به وجود آمده‌است.ب - كانه : مواد معدني يا كانيهاي موجود در كانسار كه داراي ارزش اقتصادي است.پ - ذخيره معدني (كانسار): تمركز و يا انباشت طبيعي يك يا چند ماده معدني در زير يا روي زمين و يا محلول در آب مي‌باشد.ت - معدن: ذخيره معدني است كه بهره‌برداري از آن مقرون به صرفه باشد.ث - اكتشاف: تجسس ارادي بمنظور يافتن كانسار است كه شامل عملياتي از جمله موارد زير مي‌باشد:1 - آثاريابي و نمونه‌برداري و آزمايشات كمي و كيفي.2 - بررسيهاي زمين‌شناسي، ژئوفيزيكي و ژئوشيميائي و مانند آنها و انجام اموري كه براي اينگونه بررسيها لازم باشد.3 - حفاري روباز و زيرزميني.4 - تعيين شكل و كيفيت و كميت ذخيره معدني و تهيه نقشه‌هاي مربوطه.ج - پروانه اكتشاف: مجوزي است كه براي انجام عمليات اكتشافي مواد معدني در محدوده مشخص ازطرف وزارت معادن و فلزات صادر‌مي‌شود.چ - گواهي كشف: تائيديه‌اي است كه توسط وزارت معادن و فلزات پس از اتمام عمليات اكتشافي و كشف كانه بنام دارنده پروانه اكتشاف صادر‌مي‌شود.ح - بهره‌برداري: مجموعه عملياتي است كه بمنظور استخراج و كانه‌آرائي و بدست آوردن مواد معدني قابل فروش انجام مي‌گيرد.خ - بهره‌بردار: شخص حقيقي يا حقوقي اعم از دولتي، تعاوني و خصوصي است كه داراي پروانه بهره‌برداري از وزارت معادن و فلزات باشد.‌د - استخراج : مجموعه عملياتي است كه بمنظور جداكردن كانه از كانسار و انتقال آن به محل انباشت مواد انجام مي‌گيرد.‌ذ - اجازه برداشت: مجوزي است كه از طرف وزارت معادن و فلزات براي تأمين مصالح ساختماني مورد نياز طرحهاي عمراني و برداشت‌واريزه‌ها و ذخاير محدود و جزئي و نيز عمليات آزمايشگاهي صادر مي‌شود.‌ر - حقوق دولتي: عبارت است از درآمد دولت ناشي از استخراج، بهره‌برداري و برداشت هر واحد از ماده يا مواد معدني. + نوشته شده در یکشنبه ۱۴ اسفند ۱۳۹۰ ساعت 15:22 توسط j |ریشه لغوی لغت مینرال (کانی) که از قرون وسطی مورد استعمال قرار گرفته از لغت یونانی Mna (متشابه لاتینی آن Mina است) به معنی "کانی" یا "گردال" (از نظر معدن شناسی) مشتق شده است، لذا نام فارسی آن یعنی "کانی" معروف موادی است که از کانسارها بدست می‌آورند. نگاه اجمالی قرنها پیش از دستیابی انسان به فلزات و علم استخراج و مصرف آنها ، برخی از سنگها و کانیها مهمترین ابزار دفاعی ، زراعی و شکار بشر محسوب می‌شده‌اند. بشر اولیه جهت تهیه ابزار سنگی از مولد دارای سختی زیاد همچون سنگ چخماق ، کوارتزیت ، ابسیدین ، کوارتز و ... که در محیط زندگی‌اش فراوان بوده استفاده کرده است. نحوه استفاده و بکارگیری این مولد آنچنان در زندگی و پیشرفت انسان مؤثر بوده است که بر این اساس زمان زندگی انسان اولیه را به سه دوره دیرسنگی ، میانسنگی) و نوسنگی تقسیم شده‌اند. همزمان با شناخت فلزات و استخراج آنها عصر فلزات آغاز گردید. احتمالاً اولین فلز استخراج شده در حدود 450 سال ق.م ، مس بوده است. کانیها از نظر فیزیکی و شیمیایی اجسام طبیعی و همگن هستند که تقریبا منحصرا بصورت بلور و یا لااقل توده بلورین حاوی ذرات ظریف و ریز تا درشت تشکیل می‌گردند. فقط معدودی از کانیهایی که آنها را بصورت جامد می‌شناسیم، به حالت بی شکل و یا ژلهای وجود دارند. با توجه به همگن بودن شیمیایی کانیها ، ترکیب آنها را می‌توان بوسیله فرمول نشان داد. مع ذلک این فرمول در بسیاری از حالات ، منظور عادی شمی را مجسم نمی‌کند، به این جهت در نگارش آن مفاهیم کریستالو شیمی به مقیاس وسیعی باید منظور گردد. برای معرفی کانیها علاوه بر فرمول آنها ، تمام خواص فیزیکی مانند خواص نورانی ، الکتریکی ، مقاومت ، سختی و بالاخره خاصیت بلورشناسی نیز مورد بررسی قرار می‌گیرد. اساس مطالعه این خواص موضوع کانی شناسی عمومی را تشکیل می‌دهد. + نوشته شده در شنبه ۶ اسفند ۱۳۹۰ ساعت 16:56 توسط j | + نوشته شده در شنبه ۶ آبان ۱۳۹۱ ساعت 10:51 توسط j | + نوشته شده در شنبه ۶ آبان ۱۳۹۱ ساعت 10:43 توسط j | + نوشته شده در شنبه ۶ آبان ۱۳۹۱ ساعت 10:36 توسط j | + نوشته شده در شنبه ۶ آبان ۱۳۹۱ ساعت 10:29 توسط j | + نوشته شده در شنبه ۶ آبان ۱۳۹۱ ساعت 10:15 توسط j | + نوشته شده در چهارشنبه ۲۰ اردیبهشت ۱۳۹۱ ساعت 8:55 توسط j | Different kinds of metamorphism may be defined on the basis of different criteria, including (1) the spatial extent over which metamorphism occurred, (2) the geologic setting of metamorphism, (3) the specific cause of metamorphism, (4) whether a rock equilibrated to a single event or if one can discern superposed overprints, (5) whether or not significant change in composition occurred, and (6) whether all or part of the mineral assemblage developed in response to increasing or decreasing temperature. Classifications of metamorphism therefore vary with the proclivity of the author. The following classification is an attempt at compromise between the various viewpoints. Regional metamorphism occurs over an area of great extent and affects a large volume of rock. It is thus associated with large-scale processes, such as sea-floor spreading or mountain building (orogeny). Local metamorphism is restricted to far more limited rock volumes and can typically be related to a local cause/source such as a magmatic intrusion, and fault zone. When it is possible to relate metamorphism to a particular cause/source (as is generally the case) the following classification takes precedence. 1. Orogenic metamorphism is a type of regional metamorphism related to the development of mountain belts. Dynamic and thermal effects are combined in varying proportions over a wide range of P-T conditions, typically resulting in foliated metamorphic rocks such as slate, schist, and gneiss (listed in order of increasing grade). Multiple deformational and thermal phases may occur, resulting in several metamorphic overprints. Most exposed metamorphic rocks belong to this category.  See also: Gneiss; Schist; Slate 2. Burial metamorphism is a type of regional metamorphism developed in rocks deeply buried under a sedimentary and/or volcanic pile and is typically not associated with orogenic deformation or extensive magmatic intrusion. It commonly involves only low to intermediate metamorphic temperatures and low pressures, resulting in nonfoliated or poorly foliated rocks. 3. Ocean-floor metamorphism is a type of regional metamorphism developed near oceanic spreading centers in response to the high local heat flow and extensive circulation of heated seawater along pervasive fractures. + نوشته شده در یکشنبه ۲۷ فروردین ۱۳۹۱ ساعت 18:35 توسط j | Tsunamiites and seismitesRecords of some of nature's most catastrophically powerful, short-lived phenomena are preserved in sediments and ancient sedimentary rocks called tsunamiites and seismites, which are important not only for reconstructing ancient events but also for evaluating future hazards. Tsunamiites (also spelled tsunamites) are composed of predominantly marine or lake sediments that were transported by huge water waves called tsunami, which are set into motion by earthquakes, massive landslides, volcanic explosions, and asteroid impacts. Tsunamiites also include continental sediments that were transported when tsunamis suddenly dislodged offshore sediment and mixed it with water to form turbidity currents—dense, turbid masses that flow down the slopes of large lakes and oceans and then commonly travel for hundreds of kilometers over the deep sea floor before being deposited. A seismite is a sediment or sedimentary rock that contains textures and structures produced by earthquake shaking; unlike a tsunamiite, the sediments in seismites were already accumulating when the disturbance occurred. By comparing their pre- and postearthquake features, seismites can be used to calculate the timing, frequency, and local intensities of historic or prehistoric earthquakes, the orientation of their stresses, and even the basin slopes on which the sediments were accumulating. Various seismite features may even provide estimates of the magnitude of the earthquake that produced them, if the distance to the epicenter and the depth of focus are reasonably well known.   + نوشته شده در شنبه ۶ اسفند ۱۳۹۰ ساعت 20:29 توسط j | TidalitesSediments deposited by tidal processes. Until recently, “tidalites” referred to sediments deposited by tidal processes in both the intertidal zone (between normal low- and high-tide levels) and shallow, subtidal (permanently submerged), tide-dominated environments less than 200 m (660 ft) deep. Tidalites are now known also to occur within supratidal environments (above normal high tide and flooded only during storms or very high spring tides) and submarine canyons at depths much greater than 200 m. Common usage has drifted toward describing tidalites as ripple- and dune-scale features rather than more composite deposits such as large linear sand ridges of tidal origin present on continental shelves or point bars associated with migrating tidal channels. Both of these larger-scale features, however, would be composed of tidalites.  Recognition criteria By identifying tidalites in either the modern or the ancient geological record, geologists are implying that they know that the sediments were deposited by tidal processes rather than by storms or waves. Tidalites are not always easy to identify with certainty, especially in the rock record. In order to do so, it is necessary to understand the basic tidal cycles that can influence sedimentation.   + نوشته شده در شنبه ۶ اسفند ۱۳۹۰ ساعت 20:26 توسط j | Fluvial sedimentsDeposits formed by rivers. An alluvial river is one which flows within its own fluvial sediments, as distinct from one that has incised into the underlying bedrock. A river accumulates deposits because its capacity to carry sediment has been exceeded, and some of the sediment load is deposited. Rivers tend toward a state of dynamic equilibrium, in which they adjust their slope in response to changes in discharge and sediment load. The result is a channel profile that is steep in its source areas but flattens out downstream, and is graded to a slope of zero where the river discharges into a lake or the sea. Fluvial sedimentary accumulations range from temporary bars deposited on the insides of meander bends as a result of a loss of transport energy within a local eddy, to deposits tens to hundreds of meters thick formed within major valleys or on coastal plains as a result of the response of rivers to a long-term rise in base level or to the uplift of sediment source areas relative to the alluvial plain. Both these processes perturb the graded profile so that it tends to rise, creating space, or accommodation, for sediment. The same processes control the style of rivers and the range of deposits that are formed, so that a study of the deposits may enable the geologist to reconstruct the changes in controlling factors during the accumulation of the deposits.  See also: Depositional systems and environments; River; Stream transport and deposition + نوشته شده در شنبه ۶ اسفند ۱۳۹۰ ساعت 20:23 توسط j |Fault and fault structuresProducts of fracturing and differential movements along fractures in continental and oceanic crustal rocks. Faults range in length and magnitude of displacement from small structures visible in hand specimens, displaying offsets of a centimeter (1 cm = 0.4 in.) or less, to long, continuous crustal breaks, extending hundreds of kilometers (1 km = 0.6 mi) in length and accommodating displacements of tens or hundreds of kilometers. Faults exist in deformed rocks at the microscopic scale, but these are generally ignored or go unrecognized in most geological studies. Alternatively, where microfaults systematically pervade rock bodies as sets of very closely spaced subparallel, planar fractures, they are recognized and interpreted as a type of cleavage which permitted flow of the rock body. Fractures along which there is no visible displacement are known as joints. These include shear joints, formed by fracturing and imperceptible movement of the walls of the fractures parallel to fracture surfaces, and tension joints, formed by negligible or barely visible displacement of the walls of the fractures perpendicular to the fracture surfaces. Large fractures which have accommodated major dilational openings (a meter or more) perpendicular to the fracture surfaces are known as fissures. Formation of fissures is restricted to near-surface conditions, for example, in areas of crustal stretching of subsidence. When faulting takes place under conditions of high temperature or pressure, zones of penetrative shear flow may develop which are best described as ductile fault zones.   + نوشته شده در شنبه ۶ اسفند ۱۳۹۰ ساعت 20:19 توسط j | Fault analysisThe detection and diagnosis of malfunctions in technical systems. Such systems include production equipment (chemical plants, steel mills, paper mills, and power stations), transportation vehicles (ships, airplanes, automobiles), and household appliances (washing machines, air conditioners). In any of these systems, malfunctions of components may lead to damage of the equipment itself, degradation of its function or product, jeopardy of its mission, and hazard to human life. While the need to detect and diagnose malfunctions is not new, advanced fault detection has been made possible only by the proliferation of the computer. Fault detection and diagnosis actually means a scheme in which a computer monitors the technical equipment to signal any malfunction and determines the components responsible. The detection and diagnosis of the fault may be followed by automatic actions, enabling the fault to be corrected such that the system may operate successfully even under the particular faulty condition.  Diagnostic concepts Fault detection and diagnosis applies to both the basic technical equipment and the actuators and sensors attached to it. In the case of a chemical plant, the former includes the reactors, distillation columns, heat exchangers, compressors, storage tanks, and piping. Typical faults are leaks, plugs, surface fouling, and broken moving parts. The actuators are mostly valves, together with their driving devices (electric motors and hydraulic or pneumatic drives). The sensors are devices measuring the different physical variables in the plant, such as thermocouples, pressure diaphragms, and flow meters. Actuator and sensor fault detection is very important because these devices are prone to faults. The on-line or real-time detection and diagnosis of faults means that the equipment is constantly monitored during its regular operation by a permanently connected computer, and any discrepancy is signaled almost immediately. On-line monitoring is very important for the early detection of any component malfunction before it can lead to more substantial equipment failure. In contrast, off-line diagnosis involves monitoring the system by a special, temporarily attached device, under special conditions (for example, car diagnostics at a service station). The diagnostic activity may be broken down into several logical stages. Fault detection is the indication of something going wrong in the system. Fault isolation is the determination of the fault location (the component which malfunctions), while fault identification is the estimation of its size. On-line systems usually contain the detection and isolation stage; in off-line systems, detection may be superfluous. Fault identification is usually less important than the two other stages. Fault detection and isolation can never be performed with absolute certainty because of circumstances such as noise, disturbances, and model errors. There is always a trade-off between false alarms and missed detections, with the proper balance depending on the particular application. In professionally supervised large plants, false alarms are better tolerated and missed detections may be more critical, while in consumer equipment (including cars) the situation may be the opposite.   + نوشته شده در شنبه ۶ اسفند ۱۳۹۰ ساعت 20:14 توسط j |

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